Nama : Miftahul Fauzan
NPM :
15213476
Kelas : 4EA18
Five Basic Types
of Questions
What
types of questions are you asking students? Mastering five basic types of
questions.
All
educators, no matter what level, need to be able to craft and create at least 5
basic types of questions. The art of asking questions is an ancient part of
good teaching and one of the rudimentary skills all teachers should be able to
master. Socrates believed that knowledge and awareness were an intrinsic part
of each learner. Thus, in exercising the craft of good pedagogy a skilled
educator must reach into learners’ hidden levels of knowing and awareness in
order to help them reach new levels of thinking through thoughtfully developed
questions.
As
you examine the categories below, reflect on your own educational experiences
and see if you can ascertain which types of questions were used most often by
your different teachers. Hone your questioning skills by practicing asking
different types of questions, and try to monitor your teaching so that you
include varied levels of questioning skills. Specifically in the area of
Socratic questioning techniques, there are a number of sites on the Web which
might prove helpful, simply use Socratic questioning as a
descriptor.
1. Factual –
Soliciting reasonably simple, straight forward answers based on obvious facts
or awareness. These are usually at the lowest level of cognitive (thinking) or
affective (feeling) processes and answers are frequently either right or wrong.
Example: Name the Shakespeare
play about the Prince of Denmark?
2. Convergent –
Answers to these types of questions are usually within a very finite range of
acceptable accuracy. These may be at several different levels of cognition —
comprehension, application, analysis, or ones where the answerer makes
inferences or conjectures based on personal awareness, or on material read,
presented or known. While these types of questions are valuable in exercising
mid-level cognitive thinking skills, it is quite easy to expand students’ cognitive
processes even higher by adding another layer to these questions whereby
teachers ask students to justify their answers in light of the evidence offered
or the inferences made.
Example: On reflecting over
the entirety of the play Hamlet, what were the main reasons why Ophelia went
mad? (This is not specifically stated in one direct statement in the text of
Hamlet. Here the reader must make simple inferences as to why she committed
suicide.)
3. Divergent –
These questions allow students to explore different avenues and create many
different variations and alternative answers or scenarios. Correctness may be
based on logical projections, may be contextual, or arrived at through basic
knowledge, conjecture, inference, projection, creation, intuition, or
imagination. These types of questions often require students to analyze,
evaluate, or synthesize a knowledge base and then project or predict
different outcomes. Answering these types of questions may be aided by higher levels of affective thinking
as well — such as valuing, organization, or characterization. Responses to
these types of questions generally fall into a wide array of acceptability.
Often correctness is determined subjectively based on the possibility or
probability of the proposed answer. The intent of these types of questions is
to stimulate imaginative, creative, or inventive thought, or investigate “cause
and effect” relationships.
Example: In the love
relationship of Hamlet and Ophelia, what might have happened to their
relationship and their lives if Hamlet had not been so obsessed with the
revenge of his father’s death?
4. Evaluative –
These types of questions usually require sophisticated levels of cognitive
and/or emotional (affective) judgment. In attempting to answer these types of
questions, students may be combining multiple cognitive and/or affective
processes or levels, frequently in comparative frameworks. Often an answer is
analyzed at multiple levels and from different perspectives before the answerer
arrives at newly synthesized information or conclusions.
Examples:
a.
How are the the deaths of Ophelia and Juliet the same and yet different?
(Compare and contrast.)
b.
What are the similarities and differences between Roman gladiatorial games and
modern football?
c.
Why and how might the concept of Piagetian schema be related to the concepts
presented in Jungian personality theory, and why might this be important to
consider in teaching and learning?
5. Combinations –
These are questions that blend any combination of the above.
You
can easily monitor what types of questions you are asking your students through
simple tallies and examining degrees of difficulty. Or, if your students are
older, then ask them to monitor the types of questions you ask, allowing them
to identify the types. For those of you who might be a bit more collaborative
or adventurous in your teaching and want to give students some ownership in
their educational processes, challenge them to create course related questions
to ask one another. In my many years of teaching I was always pleasantly
surprised at what students came up with.
For
more details please see This Rough Magic –
Lindley, D. (1993) This rough magic. Westport, CN. Bergin & Garvey.
Lynn
Erickson was a principal and has written a number of books on different
educational topics. In the one cited below she also tackles types of questions
as a topic but she divides them into factual, conceptual and provocative.
If
you look at my discussion above based on Lindley’s divisions, it should become
apparent that these are some of the same types of categories as Erickson’s.
Her factual are still
the ones that are easily answered with definitive, and comparatively simple
answers. These are the questions that you find on the show Jeopardy. Unfortunately they are
also too common in schools and on tests.
Her conceptual questions might be
ones that are convergent, divergent, or evaluative in construction — ones that
delve deeper and require more sophisticated levels of cognitive processing and
thinking.
Her provocative ones are ones that
entice, and ones that cannot be answered easily. They are questions that can be
used to motivate and frame content or ones that could be classified as essential
questions. In the initial categorization above they
would be either complex divergent questions or more sophisticated combination
questions like divergent/evaluative ones.
Erickson,
H. L. (2007) Concept-based curriculum
and instruction for the thinking classroom. Thousand
Oaks, CA. Corwin Press.(Amazon link goes to the newest 2nd edition of this
book)
Leslie’s comments: Please
remember that questions should be about exercising mental agility and recall,
and getting students and children to think in new and complex ways. Questions
should not be just about getting that one correct answer. Parents can
also encourage higher levels of thinking and feeling by using questions to
connect with their children’s lives and interests, and by rediscovering the
lost arts of friendly discussion and polite discourse. Sadly, and almost wholly
due to our growing obsession with our phones and social media, we are in danger
of losing the abilities to interact face-to-face in polite ways and in
meaningful intellectual ways.
There
is a fine edge between polite, lively discussions that get minds thinking and
engaged, and hearts pumping, compared to out of control, hostile argumentation.
Being able to discern the differences and adjust one’s social/emotional
interactions accordingly is a valuable skill.
Innate
curiosity, asking questions throughout life, is a strong human trait. It is how
we find and solve problems. Encouraging children to think, to learn, to
remember, to make inferences and connections through questions is a very
ancient form of education – one that needs to be perpetuated, understood, and
practiced.
Tag question
A question
tag or tag question (also
known as tail question) is a grammatical structure in which a declarative statement
or an imperative is
turned into a question by adding an interrogative fragment (the
"tag"). For example, in the sentence "You're John, aren't
you?", the statement "You're John" is turned into a question by
the tag "aren't you". The term "question tag" is generally
preferred by British grammarians, while their American counterparts prefer
"tag question".
Uses
In most languages, tag questions are more common in colloquial spoken usage
than in formal written usage. They can be an indicator of politeness, hedging,
consensus seeking, emphasis and/or irony.
They may suggest confidence or lack of confidence; they may be confrontational,
defensive or tentative. Although they have the grammatical form of a question,
they may be rhetorical (not
expecting an answer). In other cases, when they do expect a response, they may
differ from straightforward questions in that they cue the listener as to what
response is desired. In legal settings, tag questions can often be found in
a leading question.
According to a specialist children's lawyer at the NSPCC,
children find it difficult to answer tag questions other than in accordance
with the expectation of the questioner[1] using or tagging a question.
Forms
Question tags are formed in several ways, and many languages give a choice
of formation. In some languages the most common is a single word or fixed
phrase, whereas in others it is formed by a regular grammatical construction.
Single
word forms
In many languages, the question tag is a simple positive or negative.
Russian allows да? (yes) whereas Spanish and Italian
use ¿no? and no? respectively. In Indonesian,
sometimes ya? (yes) is used but it is more common to
say kan?, which probably
is a contraction of bukan (negation
for nouns).
Another common formation is equivalent to the English correct? or the informal
form right?. This more
often is realised as the word for true or truth, such as in Polish prawda? , Slovak pravda? or the particle však?, or Spanish ¿verdad?, which in turn can be
presented in a negative form, such as in the Polish nieprawdaż?, German nicht wahr? (not true) or Lithuanian ar ne?. Alternatively, a word or
short phrase indicating agreement can be used, such as the French d'accord?.
A plain conjunction may be used, such as the Czech and Slovak že? (that). Various other words occur in specific languages, such as
German oder? (or), Slovak či? (or, colloquialism), and the Chinese ma (literally what but
never used in the way English uses that word).
Finally, some languages have words whose only function is as a question
tag. In Scots and certain dialects of English, eh? functions this way. French has hein?, Southern German dialects
have gell? (derived
from a verb meaning to be valid)
and Portuguese has né? (actually
a colloquial contraction of não é,
literally isn't it,
while é?, pronounced much
like English eh?, would
have a different intended meaning, that of English right?).
Grammatically
regular forms
In several languages, the tag question is built around the standard
interrogative form. In English and the Celtic languages, this interrogative
agrees with the verb in the main clause, whereas in other languages the
structure has fossilised into a fixed form, such as the French n'est-ce pas ? (literally
"isn't it?").
Grammatically productive tag
forms
Grammatically productive tag forms are formed in the same way as simple
questions, referring back to the verb in the main clause and agreeing in time
and person (where the language has such agreement). The tag may include a
pronoun, such as in English, or may not, as is the case in Scottish Gaelic. If
the rules of forming interrogatives require it, the verb in the tag may be an
auxiliary, as in English.
Punctuation
In most languages, a tag question is set off from the sentence by a comma.
In Spanish, where the beginnings of questions are marked with an inverted
question mark, it is only the tag, not the whole sentence, which is placed
within the question bracket:
·
Estás cansado, ¿verdad? (You're tired, aren't you?)
In English
English tag questions, when they have the grammatical form of a question,
are atypically complex, because they vary according to at least three factors:
the choice of auxiliary, the negation and the intonation pattern. This is
unique among the Germanic languages, but the Celtic languages operate in a very
similar way. For the theory that English has borrowed its system of tag
questions from Brittonic, see Brittonicisms
in English.
Auxiliary
The English tag question is made up of an auxiliary verb and a pronoun. The
auxiliary must agree with the tense, aspect and modality of
the verb in the preceding sentence. If the verb is in the present perfect, for
example, the tag question uses has or have; if the verb is in a present
progressive form, the tag is formed with am, are, is; if the verb is in a tense which does not normally
use an auxiliary, like the present simple, the auxiliary is taken from the
emphatic do form; and
if the sentence has a modal auxiliary, this is echoed in the tag:
·
He's read this book, hasn't he?
·
He read this book, didn't he?
·
He's reading this book, isn't he?
·
He reads a lot of books, doesn't he?
·
He'll read this book, won't he?
·
He should read this book, shouldn't he?
·
He can read this book, can't he?
·
He'd read this book, wouldn't he?
·
He'd read this book, hadn't he?
A special case occurs when the main verb is to be in a simple tense. Here the tag question repeats the
main verb, not an auxiliary:
·
This is a book, isn't it?
If the main verb is to have in
the sense of possession, either solution is possible:
·
He has a book, hasn't he?
·
He has a book, doesn't he?
Balanced
vs unbalanced tags
English question tags exist in both positive and negative forms. When there
is no special emphasis, the rule of thumb often applies that a positive
sentence has a negative tag and vice versa. This form may express confidence,
or seek confirmation of the asker's opinion or belief.
·
She is French, isn't she?
·
She's not French, is she?
These are referred to as balanced
tag questions.
Unbalanced tag questions feature a positive statement with a positive
tag, or a negative statement with a negative tag; it has been estimated that in
normal conversation, as many as 40–50%[2] of tags are unbalanced.
Unbalanced tag questions may be used for ironic or confrontational effects:
·
Do listen, will you?
·
Oh, I'm lazy, am I?
·
Jack: I refuse to spend Sunday at your mother's
house! Jill: Oh
you do, do you? We'll see about that!
·
Oh! Making a stand, are we?
Unbalanced tags also occur when shall is
used to ask for confirmation of a suggestion:
·
I'll make tea, shall I?
·
Let's start, shall we? (there is no interrogative version of let's, so here shall we is used as if the
sentence were we shall start)
Patterns of negation can show regional variations. In North East Scotland, for example, positive to positive
is used when no special effect is desired:
·
This pizza's fine, is it? (standard English: This pizza's delicious, isn't it?)
Note the following variations in the negation when the auxiliary is
the I form of
the copula:
·
Standard/formal: Clever, am I not?
·
England
(and America, Australia, etc.): Clever, aren't I?
·
Scotland/Northern
Ireland: Clever, amn't I?
·
nonstandard dialects: Clever, ain't I?
Intonation
English tag questions can have a rising or a falling intonation pattern.[3] This can be contrasted with
Polish, French or German, for example, where all tags rise, or with the Celtic
languages, where all fall. As a rule, the English rising pattern is used when
soliciting information or motivating an action, that is, when some sort of
response is required. Since normal English yes/no questions have rising
patterns (e.g. Are you coming?),
these tags make a grammatical statement into a real question:
·
You're coming, aren't you?
·
Do listen, will you?
·
Let's have a beer, shall we?
The falling pattern is used to underline a statement. The statement itself
ends with a falling pattern, and the tag sounds like an echo, strengthening the
pattern. Most English tag questions have this falling pattern.
·
He doesn't know what he's doing, does he?
·
This is really boring, isn't it?
Sometimes the rising tag goes with the positive to positive pattern to
create a confrontational effect:
·
He was the best in the class, was he? (rising: the speaker is challenging this thesis, or
perhaps expressing surprised interest)
·
He was the best in the class, wasn't he? (falling: the speaker holds this opinion)
·
Be careful, will you? (rising: expresses irritation)
·
Take care, won't you? (falling: expresses concern)
Sometimes the same words may have different patterns depending on the
situation or implication.
·
You don't remember my name, do you? (rising: expresses surprise)
·
You don't remember my name, do you? (falling: expresses amusement or resignation)
·
Your name's Mary, isn't it? (rising: expresses uncertainty)
·
Your name's Mary, isn't it? (falling: expresses confidence)
It is interesting that as an all-purpose tag the Multicultural
London English set-phrase innit (for "isn't it") is only used with falling
patterns:
·
He doesn't know what he's doing, innit?
·
He was the best in the class, innit?
On the other hand, the adverbial tag questions (alright? OK? etc.) are almost always found with rising
patterns. An occasional exception is surely.
Variant
forms
There are a number of variant forms that exist in particular dialects of
English. These are generally invariant, regardless of verb, person or negativity.
The tag right? is
common in a number of dialects across the UK and US, as well as in Indian English.
The tags isn't it? and no? are used in Indian English.[4]
The tag eh? is of
Scottish origin,[5] and can be heard across much
of Scotland, New Zealand,[6][7] Canada[8][9][10][11] and the North-Eastern
United States. In Central Scotland (in and around Stirling and Falkirk), this
exists in the form eh no? which
is again invariant.
The tag or? is
used commonly in the North-Eastern United States and other regions to make
offers less imposing. These questions could always logically be completed by
stating the opposite of the offer, though this effect is understood intuitively
by native speakers. For example:
·
Would
you like another drink, or (would you not)?
·
Did
you want to go to the park together, or (did you not want to go)?
The tag hey? (of Afrikaans and Dutch origin) is used in South African English.
Rhetorical tag questions may be found in British English.[12] For example:
Alice: Is the tea ready?
Bob: The water has to boil,
doesn't it?
This is a peremptory tag question that criticizes what the answerer
perceives as the asker's impatience. An antagonistic tag question is tagged
onto a statement that reveals information that the target would not have had.
For example:
Chuck: I telephoned you this morning,
but you didn’t answer.
Mallory: I was in the bath,
wasn’t I?
In the Celtic
languages
Like English, the Celtic languages form tag questions by
echoing the verb of the main sentence. The Goidelic languages, however, make
little or no use of auxiliary verbs, so that it is generally the main verb
itself which reappears in the tag. As in English, the tendency is to have a
negative tag after a positive sentence and vice versa, but unbalanced tags are
also possible. Some examples from Scottish Gaelic:
(Here, eil and fhaca are dependent
forms of the irregular verbs tha and chunnaic.)
·
Is toil leat fìon, nach toil? – You like wine, don't you?
·
Tha i brèagha an diugh, nach eil? – It's nice today, isn't it?
·
Chunnaic mi e, nach fhaca? – I saw him, didn't I?
·
Thèid mi ga dhùsgadh, an tèid? – I'll go and wake him, shall I? (unbalanced!)
In Welsh, a
special particle on is
used to introduce tag questions, which are then followed by the inflected form
of a verb. Unlike English and the Goidelic languages, Welsh prefers a positive
tag after a positive statement, and negative after negative. With the
auxiliary bod, it is the
inflected form of bod that
is used:
·
Mae hi'n bwrw glaw heddiw, on dydy? – It's raining today, isn't it?
·
Dydy hi ddim yn bwrw glaw heddiw, on nac
ydy? – It's not
raining today, is it?
With inflected non-preterite forms, the inflected form of the verb is used:
·
Doi di yfory, on doi? – You'll come tomorrow, won't you?
With preterite and perfect forms, the invariable do (also the affirmative answer
to these questions) is used:
·
Canodd y bobl, on do? – The people sang, didn't they?
·
Mae hi wedi ei weld o, on do? – She's seen him, hasn't she?
When a non-verbal element is being questioned, the question particle ai is used:
·
Mr Jones, on dai? – Mr Jones, isn't it? or Mr Jones, on tefe?
·
Questions: yes-no questions
(Are you feeling cold?)
Questions that need
either a yes or a no answer are called yes-no questions:
Do you like vanilla
ice cream? (answer: yes or no)
Have you ever seen a
ghost? (answer: yes or no)
Forming yes-no questions
With an auxiliary verb
We form yes-no questions
with an auxiliary verb (be, do or have) + subject +
main verb or with a modal verb + subject + main verb:
|
Be: Is she working very hard?
|
Were they travelling
together?
|
|
Do: Does that taste okay?
|
Did you go to the concert?
|
|
Have: Have they eaten yet?
|
Had they visited Rome
before?
|
|
Modal: Could you help me lift this?
|
Should I open the window?
|
Where there is no
auxiliary verb be, have or modal verb already
present in the statement, we use the auxiliary do, does, did:
|
Statement form (no auxiliary)
|
Question form
|
|
You usually walk to work.
|
Do you usually walk to
work?
Not:
|
|
You liked disco music in the 70s.
|
Did you like disco music
in the 70s?
Not:
|
We don’t use an
auxiliary verb when we use be as a main verb:
Is she your
sister?
Not: Does
she be your sister?
Warning:
When there is more
than one auxiliary verb or a modal verb plus auxiliary verb(s), we only put the
first auxiliary or the modal verb before the subject and the others after the
subject:
Auxiliary + subject
+ auxiliary + verb
Is this
phone call being recorded?
Not: Is
being this phone call recorded? or Is being recorded this
phone call?
Auxiliary + subject
+ auxiliary + verb
Has the
garden been looked after while you were away?
Not: Has
been the garden looked after while you were away? or Has been
looked after the garden while you were away?
Modal + subject +
auxiliary + auxiliary + verb
Should we have been
writing this down?
Not: Should
have we been writing this down?
We only put
auxiliary and modal verbs, not main verbs, before the subject:
Where did you
find the keys?
Not: Where
did find you the keys?
See also:
·
Be
·
Have
Without an auxiliary verb
When we ask yes-no questions
using the main verb be, we don’t use an auxiliary verb. The word
order is: be + subject:
Is the weather nice
in Turkey in the winter?
Was she angry
when you told her about the accident?
When we ask yes-no questions
with the main verb have, we can also use the word order verb +
subject, but it sounds rather formal. We use have got and do as
more neutral or informal alternatives:
Have you
an identity card? (formal)
Do you have an
identity card? (neutral)
Have you got an
identity card? (informal)
Warning:
When we ask
questions with the main verb have in the past to refer to
possession, we use did … have rather than had … got:
Did you have your
glasses with you when you left the car?
Had you got your
glasses with you when you left the car? (less common)
Responding to yes-no questions
Other ways of saying yes and no include yeah,
yep, mm, okay, and nah, nope. These are informal:
A:
Would you like to
play tennis with me later?
B:
Okay.
(meaning yes)
A:
Have you seen Greg?
B:
Nope.
(meaning no)
We can also give
more than just a yes or no answer. We sometimes
add more information:
A:
Can I grow potatoes
in a pot?
B:
Yeah. They grow
really well in pots.
A:
Will you be going to
Ryan’s party?
B:
No. I’m actually
going to be away on Friday night.
Sometimes we don’t
use yes or no as a reply but the answer that
we give means yes or no:
A:
Do you know Tina
Gomez?
B:
We’ve known each
other for years. We went to the same school. (meaning yes)
A:
Do you have the
Thrills latest album?
B:
I’m afraid we’ve
just sold the last one! (meaning no)
We sometimes respond
using the auxiliary verb from the question instead of yes and no:
A:
Hey Tim, did you go
fishing today?
B:
I did. I
went with the boys.
A:
Has Jason had
breakfast?
B:
He hasn’t. He’s
still in bed.
Negative yes-no questions
We usually use
negative yes-no questions to check or confirm something we
believe or expect to be the case, or when we consider that something is the
best thing to do:
Isn’t that
Pauline’s car? (I’m pretty sure that this is correct. I’m asking
for confirmation.)
Shouldn’t we
be leaving? (I think that we should leave now.)
We form
negative yes-no questions with not. We usually use
the contraction n’t. If we use not in its full
form, the question sounds very formal:
Isn’t that
the oldest building on this street?
Warning:
When using the full
form not, the order auxiliary + subject (s) + not is
more common than auxiliary + not + subject:
[AUX][s]Is that [not]not the
oldest building in this street? (formal) (preferred to [the very
formal] Is not that the
oldest building on this street?)
We can use negative yes-no questions
to make invitations, offers and complaints stronger:
Won’t you
stay for dinner? (invitation; stronger than Will you stay for
dinner?)
Wouldn’t you
like another coffee? (offer; stronger than Would you like another
coffee?)
Can’t the
manager do something about the noise? (complaint;
stronger than Can the manager do something about the noise?)
See also:
·
Requests
·
Offers
Intonation and yes-no questions
The intonation
of yes-no questions is normally either rising [ri↗sing
arrow] or fall-rising [dow↘n u↗p arrow] intonation depending on the meaning. If we do not
know the answer, we use rising intonation. If we more or less know the answer
and are looking for confirmation, we use fall-rising intonation:
Are you w↗arm
enough?
Did you once li↘ve in Ir↗eland? (I
think the answer is yes.)
We often use
fall-rising intonation with yes-no questions when asking a
number of questions together:
A:
You’re living i↘n B↗ayswater? [Question
1]
B:
Yeah. That’s right.
A:
Are you rentin↘g you↗r house? [Question
2]
B:
Yeah, we are.
A:
Is it exp↘ensi↗ve? [Question
3]
B:
It’s not very
expensive for somewhere so near the city centre.
Tidak ada komentar:
Posting Komentar